Systems and methods for active control of surface drag

ABSTRACT

A fluid control system includes a deformable surface that covers a body in at least a first and second direction. The first direction is orthogonal to the second direction. The deformable surface includes a bottom side that faces the body and a top side that is opposite the bottom side. The fluid control system also includes at least one deformer between the deformable surface and the body. The at least one deformer is configured to modify a boundary layer of a fluid that is flowing over the deformable surface by selectively deforming the top side of the surface.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 16/518,583, titled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR ACTIVE CONTROL OFSURFACE DRAG,” filed Jul. 22, 2019, which claims the benefit of andpriority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/702,746, titled “SYSTEMSAND METHODS FOR ACTIVE CONTROL OF SURFACE DRAG,” filed Jul. 24, 2018,the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety.

BACKGROUND

The present disclosure relates generally to the field of fluid flow oversurfaces. More particularly, the present disclosure relates to systemsand methods for active control of surface drag.

Surface drag is a force that acts opposite to the relative motion of anobject moving through a fluid. Air, water, and ground transportationplatforms experience some measure of surface drag, which can lead toslower speeds and less fuel efficiency.

SUMMARY

At least one aspect relates to a fluid control system that includes asurface that covers a body in at least a first and second direction. Thefirst direction is orthogonal to the second direction. The surfaceincludes a bottom side that faces the body and a top side that isopposite the bottom side. The fluid control system also includes atleast one movable section on the top side of the surface. The at leastone movable section is configured to modify a boundary layer of a fluidflowing over the surface by moving along the top side of the surface.

At least one aspect relates to a method that includes using a sensor tomeasure a parameter of a fluid flowing over a surface. A control signalis generated by a control circuit to modify the parameter, and thiscontrol signal is transmitted by the control circuit to at least oneseparate movable section on the top side of the surface. The at leastone separate movable section then is moved to modify the parameter ofthe fluid.

At least one aspect relates to a fluid control system that includes adeformable surface that covers a body in at least a first and seconddirection. The first direction is orthogonal to the second direction.The deformable surface includes a bottom side that faces the body and atop side that is opposite the bottom side. The fluid control system alsoincludes at least one deformer between the deformable surface and thebody. The at least one deformer is configured to modify a boundary layerof a fluid that is flowing over the deformable surface by selectivelydeforming the top side of the surface.

At least one aspect relates to a method that includes using a sensor tomeasure a parameter of a fluid flowing over a surface. A control signalis generated by a control circuit to modify the parameter, and thiscontrol signal is transmitted by the control circuit to at least onedeformer. The at least one deformer then selectively deforms the topside of the surface to modify the parameter of the fluid.

This summary is illustrative only and is not intended to be in any waylimiting. Other aspects, inventive features, and advantages of thedevices and/or processes described herein, as defined solely by theclaims, will become apparent in the detailed description set forthherein, taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures, wherein likereference numerals refer to like elements.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using separatemovable sections according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a fluid control system using separatemovable sections according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using separatemovable sections moved by belts according to an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using separatemovable sections moved by springs according to an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using rotatingdisks as separate movable sections according to an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using rotatingtriangularly shaped disks as separate movable sections according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using aplurality of wires as separate movable sections according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system usinginterlocking movable sections according to an embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 9 is a flow diagram of a method for active control of surface dragaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using adeformable surface according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11 is a block diagram of a fluid control system using a deformablesurface according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 12 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using adeformable surface and fluid channel deformers according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using adeformable surface and rod deformers according to an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 15 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using adeformable surface and rod deformers according to an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 16 is a schematic diagram of a fluid control system using adeformable surface and electromagnetic deformers according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 17 is a schematic diagram of sensors used in a fluid control systemaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 18 is a flow diagram of a method for active control of surface dragaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before turning to the figures, which illustrate the exemplaryembodiments in detail, it should be understood that the presentdisclosure is not limited to the details or methodology set forth in thedescription or illustrated in the figures. It should also be understoodthat the terminology used herein is for the purpose of description onlyand should not be regarded as limiting.

Referring generally to the figures, systems and methods described hereincan be used to actively control drag on surfaces. Drag is a force actingopposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to asurrounding fluid. Drag manipulation technology has a wide range ofapplications for improving performance of systems that involve fluidflowing over a surface. For example, efficiency and speed can beincreased in all manners of air transportation, including commercialaircraft, military aircraft, rockets, unmanned aerial vehicles, andgeneral aviation. Reducing drag also increases efficiency in groundtransportation such as in trains, cars, and tractor trailers. Watertransportation, including maritime shipping, personal boating, andundersea transportation can similarly be benefited by reducing drag.Reducing drag can also boost efficiency when transporting fluids throughpipes such as in natural gas or oil pipelines. Drag can be reduced toimprove performance of pipes with flowing fluids, including jet engines,such as to reduce drag when accelerated air leaves an exit nozzle orexhaust of the pipes. Manipulating drag can be valuable across a widerange of Reynolds numbers, including relatively high Reynolds numbersexperienced by maritime shipping through water and the relatively lowReynolds numbers experienced by unmanned aerial vehicles. Selectivelyincreasing drag can also be useful for braking, steering, and othercontrol of platforms. Being able to actively control surface drag of anobject allows for not only the minimization of surface drag whenefficiency or speed is most needed, but it can also allow for bettersteering and braking capabilities through selectively increasing surfacedrag.

Air, among other fluids, acts as a viscous fluid at sub-sonic speeds. Anobject moving through air may collect a group of air particles, whichthe object tends to pulls along as the object moves. Air particles closeto the surface of the object tend to move with approximately the samevelocity as the object due to viscous adhesion. As a flat plate,airfoil, or other object moves through a free stream of air at a givenrelative velocity, viscous adhesion causes a boundary layer of airhaving relative velocities below that of the relative free streamvelocity to form adjacent to the object surface. The boundary layer canbe a layer of air surrounding an object in which the relative velocityof the layer of molecules closest to the object is at or near zero, andin which the relative velocity at successively distant points from theobject increases until it approaches that of the free stream, at whichpoint the outer limit of the boundary layer is reached. For example, foran airfoil, the boundary layer can include the interface between theairfoil and the air mass surrounding the airfoil. The boundary layer maybe relatively small as compared to a size dimension of the object. Thedifference between the free stream velocity and the relative velocitiesin the boundary layer region contribute to drag. Thus, increasing therelative velocities in the boundary layer region can reduce drag, andconversely, decreasing the relative velocities in the boundary layerregion can increase drag. Drag may be caused by disturbances in flow,retarding flow near a surface. Such disturbances may not be damped asReynolds number increases, which can lead to interactions that causeincreasing disturbances, such as turbulent eddies. Disturbances may flowaway from the surface into the outer boundary layer, which can causecontinued disturbances. The present solution can control surface drag bycontrolling the difference between the velocity of the free stream andthe relative velocities of the boundary layer, such as by interruptingthe generation of disturbances near the surface.

Turbulent flow in boundary layers can contribute towards drag. Aturbulent boundary layer can have a large number of eddies that transfermomentum from the faster moving outer portions of the boundary layer tothe relatively slower portions closer to the surface. As such, turbulentboundary layers may have more surface friction than laminar boundarylayers, which have more smooth flows, and are generally free from theseeddies. Modifying turbulent eddies can make the boundary layer morelaminar and so can be used to decrease drag. Modifying eddies can alsochange the nature of the turbulence to increase or decrease drag. Thepresent solution can control surface friction and drag by modifyingand/or controlling turbulent eddies in the boundary layer.

Systems and methods of the present solution can manipulate the boundarylayer by creating deformations in the surface covering the body. Thiscreates movement on the surface that is perpendicular to the flow of thefluid (e.g., spanwise motion). Systems and methods of the presentsolution can move separate sections of the surface in differing motions,such as a direction perpendicular to the flow, parallel to the flow ofthe fluid (e.g., streamwise motion), or various directions betweenperpendicular and parallel. Both spanwise and streamwise motion canagitate the air molecules at the boundary layer.

Both spanwise and streamwise motion, or some combination of the two, cancreate one or more surface waves (mechanical waves that propagate alongthe interface between the deformable surface and the fluid) that canmanipulate the boundary layer in one or more directions. The surfacewaves can be simple surface waves such as sinusoidal waves or may be anyother type of waves, including but not limited to superposition ofsinusoids. Further, the waveform of the surface waves may be aperiodicor damped, or may comprise numerous surface displacements ordeformations. Any of a variety of signal processing and analysistechniques may be applied in order to generate the desired waveforms,including but not limited to Fourier transforms, fast Fourier transforms(FFTs), wavelet transforms, and the like.

As compared to existing systems, which may rely on providing anaerodynamic shape of a body rather than manipulating the boundary layerof a fluid and may not allow for real-time control of surfacemanipulation to control surface drag, the present solution can activelycreate deformations on a surface surrounding a body and/or actively moveseparate sections of a surface surrounding a body. As such, the presentsolution can enable more adaptable and controllable boundary layermanipulation, surface wave generation, and surface drag modification.

Although many of the concepts disclosed herein may be described withreference to air as being the fluid medium, the present solution canenable active control of surface drag of any of a variety of fluids.

A. Systems and Methods for Active Control of Surface Drag Using SurfaceOscillation

Referring generally to FIGS. 1-8, a fluid control system is shown thatcan be used to actively control surface drag of a surface by generatingoscillations of the surface, such as by causing portions of the surfaceto move within a plane of the surface or out of the plane of thesurface. In some embodiments, the fluid control system includes asurface covering a body in at least a first and second direction. Thefirst direction is orthogonal to the second direction. The surfaceincludes a bottom side facing the body and a top side opposite thebottom side. The fluid control system includes one or more movablesections on the top side of the surface, such as a plurality of separatemovable sections. The movable sections can be configured to modify aboundary layer of a fluid flowing over the surface by moving the atleast one movable section along the top side of the surface. The fluidcontrol system can selectively control surface drag over the surface byselectively moving the at least one separate movable section.

Referring now to FIGS. 1-2, a fluid control system 100 using at leastone separate movable section 101 is depicted. The surface 103 covers abody 109 in a first and second direction. The surface 103 has a bottom107 that faces the body and a top 105 that is opposite the bottom side.The fluid 111 flows in a streamwise direction 122 over the top 105 ofthe surface 103, which can be at various angles relative to a spanwisedirection 124, including but not limited to perpendicular to thespanwise direction 124. The surface 103 can include or define variousmovable sections 101, which may be connected with or spaced from oneanother.

The fluid control system 100 can be similar to the fluid control system1000 described further herein, except that the fluid control system 100modifies the fluid boundary layer 115 by moving the at least one movablesection 101, rather than causing deformers to deform the surface 103into and out of the plane of the surface 103. The fluid control system100 can move the at least one movable section 101 parallel to (e.g.,in-plane with) the plane of the surface 103 (e.g., in the spanwisedirection 124), or into and out of the plane of the surface 103. Thestreamwise or spanwise movement of the movable section(s) 101 cangenerate surface waves and oscillations, which can modify the fluidboundary layer 115. In some embodiments, such as depicted in FIG. 1, aplurality of separate movable sections 101 are positioned along thesurface 103 with gaps in between the separate movable sections 101. Insome embodiments, at least some of the movable sections 101 may becontinuous or otherwise connected with one another (e.g., rather thanhaving gaps in between), while being driven by actuators 102 asdescribed below in various directions.

In some embodiments, a first movable section 101 moves relative to asecond movable section 101. For example, the first and second movablesections 101 may each be connected to actuators 102, which can drive thefirst and second movable sections 101 in opposing directions (e.g.,opposing directions along streamwise direction 122 or spanwise direction124). In some embodiments, the first movable section 101 is fixed, whilethe second movable section 101 moves relative to the fixed first movablesection 101. The actuators 102 can cause the at least one movablesection 101 to move in the plane of the surface 103 or out of the planeof the surface 103.

In various embodiments, the first movable section 101 may be coupled tothe second movable section 101. For example, the movable sections 101may be coupled by a fixed member. The movable sections 101 may becoupled by a spring member, which can facilitate surface wave generationby transmitting and/or damping movement forces amongst movable sections101.

The movable sections 101 can vary in width. For example, widths of themovable sections 101 can be selected based on local flow conditions,such as to correlate the widths of the movable sections 101 to aparameter associated with local flow conditions. The parameter mayinclude at least one of a Reynolds number, average flow rate, orboundary layer thickness of the fluid 111. As such, the surfaces wavesgenerated by the movable sections 101 can be targeted to break updisturbances of the fluid 111, such as turbulent eddies, having specificdimensions.

Referring further to FIG. 2, the fluid control system 100 includes asensor 117. The sensor 117 can detect a parameter of the fluid 111, suchas a parameter of the fluid 111 at the fluid boundary layer 115. In someembodiments, the sensor 117 can detect parameters (e.g., in cooperationwith control circuit 119) such as friction velocity, surface shearstress, viscosity, pressure, temperature, or various parametersindicative of turbulence of the fluid 111.

The fluid control system 100 includes a control circuit 119. The controlcircuit 119 includes a processor 121 and memory 123. The control circuit119 can control operation of the actuator(s) 102 and the movablesection(s) 101 in order to move the at least one movable section(s) 101and generate a surface wave to actively control surface drag associatedwith the fluid boundary layer 115. For example, the control circuit 119can generate a control signal based on a parameter detected by sensor117. The control circuit 119 can transmit the control signal to theactuator(s) 102 to move the movable section(s) 101 to create surfacewaves. The control circuit 119 generates a control signal that specifiesthe relative speeds at which the actuator(s) 102 are to move the movablesection(s) 101. In some embodiments, the control signal specifies thefrequency of movement, the duration of movement, or the position thatthe movable section(s) 101 are moved to on the surface 103. The controlcircuit 119 can generate the control signal to cause the movablesections 101 to move in a manner to achieve a desired surface waveand/or modification to surface drag of the fluid 111. The controlcircuit 119 can generate the control signal to indicate an amplitude ofmovement of the moveable section(s) 101. The control circuit 119 cangenerate the control signal to indicate a frequency of movement of oneor more movable section(s) 101 relative to one another. The controlcircuit 119 can generate the control signal to indicate a phase ofmovement of each of the movable section(s) 101. The control circuit 119can generate the control signal to indicate an effective wavelengthcorresponding to a spatial distance along which the movable section(s)101 move in the plane of the surface 103. The control circuit 119 cangenerate the control signal to indicate multiple movable sections 101that are to move together (e.g., in gangs or groups such that a positionof each movable section 101 of the group is the same or the samerelative to a zero or baseline position).

Referring now to FIG. 3, in some embodiments, the at least one actuator102 can include at least one belt 201 that moves the movable section(s)101 across the surface 103. In some embodiments, between each belt 201is a gap 203. The at least one belt 201 can move the movable sections101 in opposing directions. The at least one belt 201 can move themovable section(s) 101 at different velocities to obtain a discrete waveof speeds across the surface. In some embodiments, each movable section101 is moved independently and out of phase from one another to generatea standing wave. The at least one belt 201 can move the movablesection(s) 101 in a sinusoidal or other periodic motion.

Referring now to FIG. 4, one or more springs 301 can be attached to themovable section(s) 101. The at least one actuator can include at leastone spring actuator 303 that compresses and releases the spring(s) 301to move the movable section(s) 101 across the surface 103 in astreamwise or spanwise direction. The at least one spring actuator 303can include various actuators such as piezoelectric actuators, pneumaticactuators, or actuators that are self-actuated by the fluid flow. The atleast one spring actuator 303 can drive the spring(s) 301 at a resonantfrequency, such as to enable fully resonant oscillation of the spring(s)301. The separate movable section(s) 101 can oscillate after thespring(s) 301 are released by the at least one spring actuator 303. Thisoscillatory motion can contribute to creating a surface wave to modifythe boundary layer of the fluid flowing over the surface 103. In someembodiments, there is a gap between the movable sections 101. As notedabove, the movable sections 101 can vary in width, so as to optimizedrag reduction along the width or length of the surface 103.

Referring now to FIG. 5, the surface 103 can include disc shaped movablesections 401, which can rotate or oscillate in either direction about anaxis perpendicular to the surface 103 to modify the boundary layer ofthe fluid. In some embodiments, each movable section 401 is rotated at aunique angular velocity. The movable sections 401 can be positioned onthe surface 103 to generate surface waves when rotated or oscillated atdesired angular velocities.

Referring now to FIG. 6, in some embodiments, the surface 103 caninclude movable section(s) 501. The movable sections 501 aretriangularly shaped with the long axis of the triangle aligned in astreamwise direction. The movable sections 501 are shaped and canoscillate in a spanwise direction in a way that optimizes drag reductionalong the streamwise length of the surface 103. The movable sections 501may oscillate a relatively small amount (e.g., less than a thresholdangle of rotation, the threshold angle being less than or equal tothirty degrees, less than or equal to fifteen degrees, less than orequal to five degrees).

Referring now to FIG. 7, in some embodiments, the movable sections 101include one or more wires 601 that are anchored to the surface 103 by atleast one end 603. The wires 603 move through and modify the boundarylayer 115 of the fluid. In some embodiments, the flow of the fluid overthe body 109 generates movement of the wires 603 that modifies theboundary layer of the fluid. In some embodiments, movement of the body109 generates the movement of the wires 601. The positions of theanchored ends 603 can be selected to maximize the boundary layermodification by the movement of the wires 603, based on factors such aswire length, wire spacing, and wire rigidity.

Referring now to FIG. 8, in some embodiments, the movable sections 101are interlocking. For example, as shown in FIG. 8, a first movablesection 101 can include a first extension 702 that at least partiallyextends adjacent to a second extension 704 of a second movable section101. In some embodiments, a gap (not shown) may be provided betweenmovable sections 101 and thus extensions 701, 702. The gap may beminimally small, which can minimize flutter and drag between thesections 101.

Referring now to FIG. 9, a method 900 of active control of surface dragis depicted. The method 900 can be performed using the fluid controlsystem 100. At 901, a surface is provided over a body in fluid flow. Thesurface covers the body in at least two orthogonal directions andincludes a bottom side facing the body and a top side opposite thebottom side.

At 903, a movable section is provided. The movable section can movestreamwise across the surface. The movable section can move out of aplane of the surface. A plurality of movable sections can be provided,which may have intermittent gaps. The movable sections can includebelts, rotatable disks, or other components which can move across thedeformable surface.

At 905, a parameter of the fluid flowing over the deformable surface ismeasured. The parameter may include any of a variety of parameters suchas friction velocity, surface shear stress, viscosity, pressure,temperature, or various parameters indicative of turbulence.

At 907, a control signal to modify the measured parameter is generatedbased on the measured parameter by a control circuit. For example, thecontrol circuit can generate the control signal to modify operation ofthe movable sections to achieve a target surface drag, fluid flowvelocity, vehicle speed, vehicle fuel burn, or other parameter relatedto the surface drag of the fluid flowing over the deformable surface.

At 909, the control signal is transmitted to the movable section (e.g.,to an actuator coupled with the movable section that controls movementof the movable section). Based on the control signal, at 911 the movablesection moves to modify the parameter of the fluid. For example, themovable section can move in a manner intended to modify a surface dragof the fluid as the fluid flows over the body.

As shown in FIG. 9, the control circuit can execute a control loop byiteratively measuring the parameter of the fluid flowing over thesurface, and updating the control signal at each iteration to achieve adesired value of the measured parameter. For example, a sensor maymeasure the fluid flow velocity at various points in the boundary layer.The sensor will transmit the measurement to the control circuit, whichwill compare it to the desired fluid flow velocity at the boundarylayer. If the measured fluid flow velocity is lower than the desiredfluid flow velocity, then the control circuit will generate a controlsignal that will result in the separate movable sections moving toincrease the fluid flow velocity. If the measured fluid flow velocity ishigher than the desired fluid flow velocity, then the control circuitwill generate a control signal that will result in the movable sectionsmoving to decrease the fluid flow velocity. After the control signal istransmitted to the movable section, the sensor measures the fluid flowvelocity at the boundary layer again and the feedback loop is continued.In some embodiments, the sensor will measure the velocity of the bodythrough the fluid and transmit the measurement to the control circuit,which will compare it to the desired velocity of the body. If thevelocity of the body is lower than the desired velocity, the controlcircuit will generate a control signal that will result in the separatemovable sections moving to increase the velocity of the body bydecreasing surface drag. If the velocity of the body is higher than thedesired velocity, the control circuit will generate a control signalthat will result in the separate movable sections moving to decrease thevelocity of the body by increasing surface drag. After the controlsignal is followed, the sensor measures the velocity of the body againand the feedback loop is continued.

B. Systems and Methods for Active Control of Surface Drag Using SurfaceDeformation

Referring generally to FIGS. 10-17, a fluid control system is shown thatcan be used to actively control surface drag of a surface by deformingthe surface, in contrast to the movable section motions described withreference to FIGS. 1-9. For example, the fluid control system can causethe surface to move in a direction out of an initial plane at which thesurface (or a portion thereof) is located, such as a directionperpendicular to the initial plane, or can cause the surface to move inthe initial plane. In some embodiments, the fluid control systemincludes a deformable surface that covers a body in at least a first andsecond direction. The first direction is orthogonal to the seconddirection. The deformable surface includes a bottom side that faces thebody and a top side that is opposite the bottom side. The fluid controlsystem also includes at least one deformer between the deformablesurface and the body. The at least one deformer is configured to modifya boundary layer of a fluid that is flowing over the deformable surfaceby selectively deforming the top side of the surface. The fluid controlsystem can selectively control surface drag over the deformable surfaceby selectively deforming the top side of the surface.

Referring now to FIGS. 10-11, a fluid control system 1000 using adeformable surface 1001 is depicted. The deformable surface 1001 coversa body 1007 in a first and second direction. The deformable surface 1001has a bottom side 1005 that faces the body 1007 and a top side 1003 thatis opposite the bottom side 1005. The body 1007 can be in the shape ofan airfoil. The body 1007 can be or form part of devices such as windturbines and propellers.

In some embodiments, the body 1007 includes the wing, tail section,fuselage or any other part or combination of parts of a rocket,commercial aircraft, military aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicle, or anyother air transportation platform. In some embodiments, the body 1007 isthe outer hull or any other part or combination of parts of a submarine,submersible, boat, ship, barge, personal watercraft, waterski or anyother water transportation platform. In some embodiments, the body 1007is the frame or any other part or combination of parts of a of a tractortrailer, truck, tractor trailer, car, motorcycle, tractor, lawnmower,motorized scooter, bicycle or any other ground transportation platform.

The fluid control system 1000 includes one or more deformers 1011 thatare configured to deform the top side 1003 of the deformable surface1001. By deforming the top side 1003 of the deformable surface 1001, thedeformers 1011 can actively control surface drag over the deformablesurface 1001. The deformers 1011 can generate deformations on thesurface perpendicular to the flow of a fluid 1009. The fluid 1009 can beair, water, or any other fluid which may flow over the deformablesurface 1001. As shown in FIG. 10, the flow 1009 flows in a streamwisedirection 1022 perpendicular to a spanwise direction 1024. By moving thedeformable surface 1001 into and out of an initial plane in which thedeformable surface 1001 (or a portion thereof) was located, or at leastpartially within the initial plane, the deformers 1011 can change thevelocity of the fluid 1009 at a boundary layer 1015.

The deformers 1011 can selectively deform the top side 1003 of thedeformable surface 1001, which can modify the boundary layer 1015 of thefluid 1009 that is flowing across the deformable surface 1001. Thedeformers 1011 can individually deform the deformable surface atspecific locations, allowing for control over the placement ofdeformations across the top side 1003 of the deformable surface 1001. Insome embodiments, the deformers 1011 can control one or more of thefrequency, amplitude, duration, and intermittency of the deformations onthe deformable surface 1001 to cause an expected surface wave of thefluid 1009 to achieve a desired change in the surface drag of the fluid1009 flowing across the deformable surface 1001.

In some embodiments, one or more actuators 1013 controls the one or moredeformers 1011. In some embodiments each actuator 1013 controls acorresponding deformer 1011. In some embodiments at least one actuator1013 controls more than one deformer 1011. The one or more actuators1013 can be powered by an external power source, battery, solar energy,internal combustion engine or any other power source. For example, thecontrol circuit 1017 discussed below can output a control signal tocause the power source to deliver a desired current and/or desiredvoltage to the one or more actuators 1013 to cause the one or moreactuators 1013 to move.

The deformers 1011 can create surface waves to modify turbulence of theboundary layer 1015. The fluid 1009 in the boundary layer 1015 will havea velocity profile with velocities that are less than a velocity in thefree flow region 1016 of the fluid 1009. The deformers 1011 can generateselective deformations at specific locations on the deformable surface1001 and at specific times to generate spanwise motion, which can createone or more surface waves, which can modify the relative velocities ofthe fluid 1009 at the boundary layer 1015 and/or the amount of turbulentflow in the boundary layer 1015. The controlled modification of theboundary layer 1015 by the deformers 1011 can allow for a measure ofcontrol over the surface drag the body 1007 experiences when travellingthrough the fluid 1009.

In some embodiments, the deformable surface 1001 includes at least oneof an elastomeric material, a thin film material, silicon nitrite,graphite, or a long chain polymer. The material of the deformablesurface 1001 may be chosen to enhance the aerodynamic properties of thedeformable surface 1001. The material of the deformable surface 1001 maybe chosen to achieve a proper interface between the boundary layer 1015and the body 1007 that is most conducive to active control of surfacedrag.

In some embodiments the deformable surface 1001 includes a flexiblematerial and is configured to be stretched over bodies of differentshapes. This allows for the deformable surface 1001 to be manufacturedto work with several different bodies. For instance, the deformablesurface 1001 can be configured to fit onto airplane wings of differentmodels but that all have similar sizes. The deformable surface 1001 canbe adjusted slightly when placed onto each body 1007. The deformers 1011can be located in certain positions with respect to the expected fluidflow direction to enable desired active control of surface drag.

Referring further to FIG. 11, the fluid control system 1000 includes asensor 1018. The sensor 1018 can be similar to the sensor 117 of thefluid control system 100. The sensor 1018 can detect at least oneparameter of the fluid 1009 surrounding the deformable surface 101,which is covering the body 1007 in a first and second direction. Thesensor 1018 can include a flow meter to detect a velocity of fluid 1009of the fluid boundary layer 1015. The sensor 1018 can include a flowmeter detect a velocity of the fluid 1009 of the free flow region 1016.

In some embodiments, the sensor 1018 detects a parameter associated withthe body 1007, or a platform that includes the body 1007. For example,the sensor 1018 can include a position sensor that detects at least oneof a position or an orientation of the body 1007, such as anaccelerometer, a gyroscope, a GPS/GNSS sensor, or an inertial navigationsystem. The sensor 1018 can include a pressure sensor. The sensor 1018can include a temperature sensor. In some embodiments, the sensor 1018detects a parameter associated with a fuel level of a platform thatincludes the body 1007, which can be used (by control circuit 1017described below) to determine a fuel burn rate of the platform.

The fluid control system 1000 includes a control circuit 1017, in someembodiments. Similar to the control circuit 119 of the fluid controlsystem 100, the control circuit 1017 can include a processor 1019 andmemory 1021. The processor 1019 can be a general purpose or specificpurpose processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC),one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), a group ofprocessing components, or other suitable processing components. Theprocessor 1019 is configured to execute computer code or instructionsstored in memory 1021 or received from other computer readable media(e.g., CDROM, network storage, a remote server, etc.). Memory 1021 caninclude one or more devices (e.g., memory units, memory devices, storagedevices, etc.) for storing data and/or computer code for completingand/or facilitating the various processes described in the presentdisclosure. Memory 1021 can include random access memory (RAM),read-only memory (ROM), hard drive storage, temporary storage,non-volatile memory, flash memory, optical memory, or any other suitablememory for storing software objects and/or computer instructions. Memory1021 can include database components, object code components, scriptcomponents, or any other type of information structure for supportingthe various activities and information structures described in thepresent disclosure. Memory 1021 can be communicably connected toprocessor 1019 via control circuit 1017 and may include computer codefor executing (e.g., by processor 1019) one or more processes describedherein. When processor 1019 executes instructions stored in memory 1021,processor 1019 generally configures the control circuit 1017 to completesuch activities.

The sensor 1018 sends detected parameters to the control circuit 1017.The control circuit 1017 generates a control signal based on theparameter(s) received from the sensor 1018. The control circuit 1017 maygenerate the control signal by implementing any of a variety orcombination of applicable control algorithms, including but not limitedto intelligent algorithms (artificial intelligence, fuzzy control,neural networks, genetic algorithms, stochastic optimization basedcontrol, etc.), lookup tables, traditional controllers (classicalcontrollers, multivariable controllers, optimal controllers, etc.), etc.The control circuit 1017 can calculate a surface drag of the fluid 1009flowing over the deformable surface 1001 based on the receivedparameters, such as based on velocity and/or pressure information.

The control circuit transmits the control signal to the actuator 1013,which moves the deformers 1011 to create a deformation in the deformablesurface 1001. This deformation can modify the fluid boundary layer 1015,which can result in a modification of the surface drag on the body 1007.

In some embodiments, the control circuit 1017 generates the controlsignal by determining a desired characteristic of a surface wave to begenerated by operation of the deformers 1011, and executes a controlfunction that translates the desired characteristic into information tocontrol operation of the actuator(s) 1013. For example, the controlcircuit 1017 can generate the control signal to indicate at least one ofan amplitude, frequency, or intermittency of motion of each of thedeformers 1011 based on the desired characteristic of the surface wave.The control circuit 1017 can similarly generate the control signal basedon a desired surface drag of the fluid 1009, velocity of the fluid 1009,flow rate of the fluid 1009, or other parameter associated with the body1007, deformable surface 1001, and/or fluid 1009.

In some embodiments, the control circuit 1017 generates the controlsignal based on a parameter detected by the sensor 1018. For example,the control circuit 1017 can receive a parameter such as speed, fuellevel, or other parameter associated with operation of a platform thatincludes the body 1007, compare the received parameter to a target valueof the parameter, and modify the control signal to reduce a differencebetween the received parameter and the target value of the parameter.Similarly, the control circuit 1017 can generate the control signal toachieve a target value of surface drag, flow rate of fluid 1009, orother parameters that may be measured by sensor 1018 and/or calculatedbased on parameters measured by sensor 1018.

Referring now to FIG. 12, in some embodiments, the fluid control system1000 deforms the deformable surface 1001 by selectively moving a fluid1104 relative to the deformable surface 1001. As shown in FIG. 2, the atleast one deformer 1011 include at least one fluid channel 1103. The atleast one fluid channel 1103 can be coupled to a plurality of cavities1101 through couplings 1105. The fluid 1104 may be transferred betweenfluid channel 1103 and one or more cavities 1101 through couplings 1105,thereby increasing or decreasing the volume of cavities 1101. Theincrease or decrease of volume of the cavities 1101 may createdeformations to the deformable surface 1001. In some embodiments, thedeformable surface 1001 can be the surface of the cavities 1101. In someembodiments, the deformable surface 1001 can be a flexible materialstretched over the cavities 1101. The fluid 1104 that is transferredbetween the cavities 1101 and the fluid channel 1103 may be a gas, aliquid, a viscous gel-like fluid, or any other fluid. The cavities 1101may be positioned to induce surface waves when the fluid 1104 istransferred between the cavities 1101 and the fluid channel 1103. Theactuators 1013 can include pumps to drive the fluid 1104 through thefluid channels 1103.

Referring now to FIG. 13, in some embodiments, the fluid control system1000 includes one or more deformers 1011 that are shaped as T-bars. Forexample, the one or more deformers 1011 can include a first member 1202coupled to one or more corresponding actuators 1013, and a second member1204 coupled to the first member 1202 and to the deformable surface1001. The at least one actuator 1013 can apply torque against thedeformable surface 1001 at various controlled locations by rotating theone or more deformers 1011, resulting in deformations to the deformablesurface 1001. The actuator 1013 can rotate the T-bar deformers 1011around an axis perpendicular to the surface (e.g., around spanwise axis1024). The locations on the deformable surface 1001 that the deformer1011 applies force against can be selected so that surface waves aregenerated by the deformations. The second member 1204 can deform as thedeformable surface 1201 deforms when the one or more deformers 1011rotate.

Referring now to FIG. 14, in some embodiments, at least one actuator1013 includes a rod actuator 1303 that can rotate one or more rods 1301about an axis parallel to the deformable surface 1001. For example, asshown in FIG. 14, the rods 1301 can be moved in the streamwise direction1022 relative to one another. The movement of the rods 1301 can createdeformations on the deformable surface 1001. The movement of the rods1301 can also move deformations across the deformable surface 1001.

Referring now to FIG. 15, in some embodiments, at least one actuator1013 includes a rod actuator 1413 that can rotate one or more rods 1411about an axis parallel to the deformable surface 1001. The rod actuator1413 can also move the rods 1411 in a direction perpendicular to thedeformable surface 1001. The movement of the rods 1411 can createdeformations on the deformable surface 1001.

Referring now to FIG. 16, at least one actuator 1013 includes one ormore electromagnetic deformers 1501, in some embodiments. The one ormore electromagnetic deformers 1501 can selectively generate one or moreelectromagnetic impulses (e.g., time-varying electromagnetic fields) atcontrolled locations. In various such embodiments, the deformablesurface 1001 responds to electromagnetic impulses and can either beattracted to the electromagnetic impulses, as a region 1505, or repelledby the electromagnetic impulses, as at region 1503. The reaction by thedeformable surface 1001 to the electromagnetic impulses created by theelectromagnetic deformer 1501 creates deformations on the deformablesurface 1001. The electromagnetic deformers 1501 can modulate at leastone of a frequency or a magnitude of the electromagnetic impulses toselectively move the deformable surface 1001.

Referring now to FIG. 17, the deformable surface 1001 is depictedcovering the body 1007. In some embodiments, a sensor 4603 measuresparameters of the free flow region 1016 of the fluid 1009. A sensor 4601measures parameters of the boundary layer region 1015 of the fluid 1009.The parameters measured by the sensors 1603 and 1601 may include thefluid flow velocity, the temperature, the fluid pressure and theviscosity of the fluid. In some embodiments, either or both of thesensors 1601 and 1603 transmit their measurements to a control circuit1017 as depicted in FIG. 11. The control circuit 1017 can use thesemeasurements to calculate parameters associated with surfacedeformations that result in a modification to the boundary layer offluid surrounding the deformable surface 1001, to enable the controlcircuit 1017 to output control signals based on desired modification tothe boundary layer.

Referring now to FIG. 18, a method 1800 of active control of surfacedrag is depicted. The method can be performed using the fluid controlsystem 1000. At 1801, a surface is provided over a body in fluid flow.The surface can be deformable. For example, the surface can be flexible.

At 1803, a deformer capable of deforming the surface is provided. Thedeformer can be coupled to the surface, such as an underside of thesurface between the surface and the body. Providing the deformer caninclude providing a plurality of deformers.

At 1805, a parameter of the fluid flowing over the deformable surface ismeasured. The parameter may include the fluid flow velocity. Forexample, the parameter can include a velocity of fluid flow in aboundary layer of the fluid flowing over the deformable surface; theparameter can include a velocity of fluid flow in a free stream (freeflow) beyond the boundary layer. The parameter can include at least oneof a pressure or a temperature of the fluid. In some embodiments, theparameter includes a parameter of the body or a platform that includesthe body, such as speed or fuel burn rate.

At 1807, a control signal to modify the measured parameter is generatedbased on the measured parameter by a control circuit. For example, thecontrol circuit can generate the control signal to achieve a targetsurface drag, fluid flow velocity, vehicle speed, vehicle fuel burn, orother parameter related to the surface drag of the fluid flowing overthe deformable surface.

At 1809, the control signal is transmitted to the deformer. Based on thecontrol signal, the deformer selectively deforms the top side of thedeformable surface to modify the parameter of the fluid.

As shown in FIG. 18, the control circuit can execute a control loop byiteratively measuring the parameter of the fluid flowing over thesurface, and updating the control signal at each iteration to achieve adesired value of the measured parameter. For example, the controlcircuit can periodically calculate the velocity of the fluid flow,compare the calculated velocity to a target velocity, and modify thecontrol signal (and thus the deformation of the deformable surface) toreduce the difference between the calculated velocity and the targetvelocity. In some embodiments, the control circuit can compare a currentfuel burn rate of a vehicle that includes the body to a target fuel burnrate, and modify the control signal (and thus the deformation of thedeformable surface) to reduce the difference between the current fuelburn rate and the target fuel burn rate.

As utilized herein, the terms “approximately,” “about,” “substantially”,and similar terms are intended to have a broad meaning in harmony withthe common and accepted usage by those of ordinary skill in the art towhich the subject matter of this disclosure pertains. It should beunderstood by those of skill in the art who review this disclosure thatthese terms are intended to allow a description of certain featuresdescribed and claimed without restricting the scope of these features tothe precise numerical ranges provided. Accordingly, these terms shouldbe interpreted as indicating that insubstantial or inconsequentialmodifications or alterations of the subject matter described and claimedare considered to be within the scope of the disclosure as recited inthe appended claims.

The term “coupled,” as used herein, means the joining of two membersdirectly or indirectly to one another. Such joining may be stationary(e.g., permanent or fixed) or moveable (e.g., removable or releasable).Such joining may be achieved with the two members coupled directly toeach other, with the two members coupled to each other using a separateintervening member and any additional intermediate members coupled withone another, or with the two members coupled to each other using anintervening member that is integrally formed as a single unitary bodywith one of the two members. Such members may be coupled mechanically,electrically, and/or fluidly.

The term “or,” as used herein, is used in its inclusive sense (and notin its exclusive sense) so that when used to connect a list of elements,the term “or” means one, some, or all of the elements in the list.Conjunctive language such as the phrase “at least one of X, Y, and Z,”unless specifically stated otherwise, is understood to convey that anelement may be either X, Y, Z; X and Y; X and Z; Y and Z; or X, Y, and Z(i.e., any combination of X, Y, and Z). Thus, such conjunctive languageis not generally intended to imply that certain embodiments require atleast one of X, at least one of Y, and at least one of Z to each bepresent, unless otherwise indicated.

References herein to the positions of elements (e.g., “top,” “bottom,”“above,” “below,” etc.) are merely used to describe the orientation ofvarious elements in the FIGURES. It should be noted that the orientationof various elements may differ according to other exemplary embodiments,and that such variations are intended to be encompassed by the presentdisclosure.

The hardware and data processing components used to implement thevarious processes, operations, illustrative logics, logical blocks,modules and circuits described in connection with the embodimentsdisclosed herein may be implemented or performed with a general purposesingle- or multi-chip processor, a digital signal processor (DSP), anapplication specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmablegate array (FPGA), or other programmable logic device, discrete gate ortransistor logic, discrete hardware components, or any combinationthereof designed to perform the functions described herein. A generalpurpose processor may be a microprocessor, or, any conventionalprocessor, controller, microcontroller, or state machine. A processoralso may be implemented as a combination of computing devices, such as acombination of a DSP and a microprocessor, a plurality ofmicroprocessors, one or more microprocessors in conjunction with a DSPcore, or any other such configuration. In some embodiments, particularprocesses and methods may be performed by circuitry that is specific toa given function. The memory (e.g., memory, memory unit, storage device,etc.) may include one or more devices (e.g., RAM, ROM, Flash memory,hard disk storage, etc.) for storing data and/or computer code forcompleting or facilitating the various processes, layers and modulesdescribed in the present disclosure. The memory may be or includevolatile memory or non-volatile memory, and may include databasecomponents, object code components, script components, or any other typeof information structure for supporting the various activities andinformation structures described in the present disclosure. According toan exemplary embodiment, the memory is communicably connected to theprocessor via a processing circuit and includes computer code forexecuting (e.g., by the processing circuit and/or the processor) the oneor more processes described herein.

The present disclosure contemplates methods, systems and programproducts on any machine-readable media for accomplishing variousoperations. The embodiments of the present disclosure may be implementedusing existing computer processors, or by a special purpose computerprocessor for an appropriate system, incorporated for this or anotherpurpose, or by a hardwired system. Embodiments within the scope of thepresent disclosure include program products comprising machine-readablemedia for carrying or having machine-executable instructions or datastructures stored thereon. Such machine-readable media can be anyavailable media that can be accessed by a general purpose or specialpurpose computer or other machine with a processor. By way of example,such machine-readable media can comprise RAM, ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, orother optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magneticstorage devices, or any other medium which can be used to carry or storedesired program code in the form of machine-executable instructions ordata structures and which can be accessed by a general purpose orspecial purpose computer or other machine with a processor. Combinationsof the above are also included within the scope of machine-readablemedia. Machine-executable instructions include, for example,instructions and data which cause a general purpose computer, specialpurpose computer, or special purpose processing machines to perform acertain function or group of functions.

Although the figures and description may illustrate a specific order ofmethod steps, the order of such steps may differ from what is depictedand described, unless specified differently above. Also, two or moresteps may be performed concurrently or with partial concurrence, unlessspecified differently above. Such variation may depend, for example, onthe software and hardware systems chosen and on designer choice. Allsuch variations are within the scope of the disclosure. Likewise,software implementations of the described methods could be accomplishedwith standard programming techniques with rule-based logic and otherlogic to accomplish the various connection steps, processing steps,comparison steps, and decision steps.

It is important to note that the construction and arrangement of thefluid control systems and methods of fluid control as shown in thevarious exemplary embodiments is illustrative only. Additionally, anyelement disclosed in one embodiment may be incorporated or utilized withany other embodiment disclosed herein. Although only one example of anelement from one embodiment that can be incorporated or utilized inanother embodiment has been described above, it should be appreciatedthat other elements of the various embodiments may be incorporated orutilized with any of the other embodiments disclosed herein.

What is claimed is:
 1. A fluid flow control system, comprising: adeformable surface covering a body in at least a first and seconddirection, the first direction orthogonal to the second direction, thedeformable surface including a bottom side facing the body and a topside opposite the bottom side; and at least one deformer between thedeformable surface and the body, the at least one deformer configured tomodify a boundary layer of a fluid flowing over the deformable surfaceby selectively deforming the top side of the deformable surface.
 2. Thefluid flow control system of claim 1, wherein the at least one deformerselectively deforms the top side of the deformable surface in a plane ofthe top side of the deformable surface.
 3. The fluid flow control systemof claim 1, wherein the at least one deformer selectively deforms thetop side of the deformable surface out of a plane of the top side of thedeformable surface.
 4. The fluid flow control system of claim 1, whereinthe at least one deformer is driven at a resonant frequency of the atleast one deformer.
 5. The fluid flow control system of claim 1,wherein: the at least one deformer deforms the top side of thedeformable surface to generate one or more surface waves.
 6. The fluidflow control system of claim 5, wherein: the at least one deformerselectively deforms the top side of the deformable surface in anoscillatory manner to generate the one or more surface waves.
 7. Thefluid flow control system of claim 1, wherein: the fluid is a firstfluid; the deformable surface includes a plurality of cavities; and theat least one deformer includes at least one second fluid channel fluidlycoupled to the plurality of cavities, the at least one deformerconfigured to selectively generate a plurality of deformations bycontrolling an amount of second fluid in the plurality of cavities. 8.The fluid flow control system of claim 7, wherein: the plurality ofcavities are positioned to generate surface waves when the fluid isselectively delivered.
 9. The fluid flow control system of claim 7,wherein: the fluid delivered to the plurality of cavities includes agas.
 10. The fluid flow control system of claim 1, wherein: the at leastone deformer includes at least one actuator configured to deform thedeformable surface by applying a force against the deformable surface ata plurality of controlled locations.
 11. The fluid flow control systemof claim 10, wherein: the plurality of controlled locations arepositioned to generate surface waves when the at least one deformerdeforms the deformable surface.
 12. The fluid flow control system ofclaim 1, comprising: at least one sensor that measures at least onecharacteristic of the fluid surrounding the deformable surface.
 13. Thefluid flow control system of claim 12, wherein: the at least one sensormeasures a flow rate of fluid inside the boundary layer surrounding thedeformable surface.
 14. The fluid flow control system of claim 12,wherein: the at least one sensor measures a flow rate of fluid outsideof the boundary layer surrounding the deformable surface.
 15. The fluidflow control system of claim 1, comprising: a control circuit configuredto control operation of the at least one deformer based on a measuredproperty of the fluid flowing over the deformable surface.
 16. The fluidflow control system of claim 1, wherein: the deformable surface includesat least one of an elastomeric material, a thin film material, siliconnitrite, graphite, or a long chain polymer.
 17. The fluid flow controlsystem of claim 1, wherein: the deformable surface includes a flexiblematerial and is configured to be stretched over bodies of differentshapes.
 18. The fluid flow control system of claim 1, wherein: thedeformable surface includes a material configured to respond to one ormore electromagnetic impulses; and the at least one deformer includes atleast one electromagnetic actuator configured to deform the deformablesurface in a plurality of controlled locations by selectively generatingthe one or more electromagnetic impulses.
 19. A fluid flow controlsystem, comprising: a deformable surface covering a body in at least afirst and second direction, the first direction orthogonal to the seconddirection, the deformable surface including a bottom side facing thebody and a top side opposite the bottom side; at least one deformerbetween the deformable surface and the body; and at least one sensorconfigured to measure a parameter of a fluid flowing over the deformablesurface; and a control circuit configured to control the at least onedeformer to modify a boundary layer of a fluid flowing over thedeformable surface by selectively deforming the top side of thedeformable surface.
 20. A method, comprising: measuring a parameter of afluid flowing over a deformable surface, the deformable surface coveringa body in at least a first and second direction, the first directionorthogonal to the second direction, the deformable surface including abottom side facing the body and a top side opposite the bottom side;generating, by a control circuit, a control signal to modify theparameter based on the measured parameter; and transmitting, by thecontrol circuit, the control signal to at least one deformer between thedeformable surface and the body to cause the at least one deformer toselectively deform the top side of the deformable surface to modify theparameter of the fluid.
 21. The method of claim 20, comprisingselectively deforming, by the at least one deformer, the top side of thedeformable surface in a plane of the top side of the deformable surface.22. The method of claim 20, comprising selectively deforming, by the atleast one deformer, the top side of the deformable surface out of aplane of the top side of the deformable surface.
 23. The method of claim20, comprising driving the at least one deformer at a resonant frequencyof the at least one deformer.
 24. The method of claim 20, comprising:generating one or more surface waves using the at least one deformer.25. The method of claim 24, comprising deforming the top side of thedeformable surface in an oscillatory manner to generate the one or moresurface waves.
 26. The method of claim 20, wherein: the fluid is a firstfluid; the deformable surface includes a plurality of cavities; the atleast one deformer includes at least second one fluid channel fluidlycoupled to the plurality of cavities; and selectively deforming the topside of the deformable surface includes controlling an amount of secondfluid in the plurality of cavities.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein:the plurality of cavities generate surface waves when the fluid isselectively delivered.
 28. The method of claim 26, wherein: the fluiddelivered to the plurality of cavities includes a gas.
 29. The method ofclaim 20, wherein: the at least one deformer includes at least oneactuator, and the method includes using the at least one actuator toapply a force against the deformable surface at a plurality ofcontrolled locations.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein: the pluralityof controlled locations are positioned to generate surface waves whenthe at least one deformer deforms the deformable surface.
 31. The methodof claim 20, comprising: measuring a flow rate of fluid inside aboundary layer surrounding the deformable surface.
 32. The method ofclaim 20, comprising: measuring a flow rate of fluid outside a boundarylayer surrounding the deformable surface.
 33. The method of claim 20,comprising: the deformable surface includes at least one of anelastomeric material, a thin film material, silicon nitrite, graphite,or a long chain polymer.
 34. The method of claim 20, wherein: thedeformable surface includes a flexible material and is configured to bestretched over bodies of different shapes.
 35. The method of claim 20,comprising: generating, by at least one electromagnetic actuator of theat least one deformer, one or more electromagnetic impulses to cause amaterial of the deformable surface to respond to the one or moreelectromagnetic impulses.